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Ruslan C Pashayev, The Mystery of French Wrestling Solved

Ruslan C Pashayev, The Mystery of French Wrestling Solved

THE MYSTERY OF FRENCH WRESTLING SOLVED
Ruslan C Pashayev

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THE MYSTERY OF FRENCH WRESTLING SOLVED.

This research is dedicated to my dear friend Christian Gaildraud of Limoge, France, a wrestling history researcher, who helped and supported me in my studies of the French wrestling traditions for all these years.

There has been a great deal of discussion and disagreement on the subject of the rules which governed wrestling competitions conducted in the traditional wrestling style that historically was practiced by the native people of Southern France (Midi). That was a unique style of wrestling since it has predated and fathered the modern Olympic sport of the Greco-Roman wrestling which in turn originated in the first half of 19th century in France and was originally called Lutte Francaise/Lutte a mains plates or French wrestling/wrestling with flat hands. That old wrestling style, the forerunner of French wrestling was commonly known in France as the Lutte Provencales or Provencal wrestling because it was considered culturally unique to the natives of Provence.

My first acquaintance with Lutte Provencales happened in 2010, when I accidentally found a short article on traditional wrestling (Li Lucho, les luttes) in the 1952 book by Charles Galtier called Le tresor des jeux provencaux (The treasure of Provencal games).

“Jeu gymnique , jadis fort en faveur auprès des Provençaux , la lutte figurait à toutes les fêtes votives , alors appelées Roumavage.”

“Wrestling is a gymnastic game, once very popular with the people of Provence; wrestling was featured at all votive festivals, then called Roumavage”.

That article mentioned various Provencal wrestling terms from the past and briefly explained them, these were such as: la lucho d’ome, la lucho de miech-ome, la lucho de la centuro en aut, la lucho libro, and etc.

This find of mine caused a further interest in this subject and lead me to a study which lasted almost fifteen years.

Since the times immemorial the region of Southern France (Midi) produced the very best wrestlers in the Provencal style first of all because of the popularity of wrestling sport among the local men and the rich culture which accompanied that passion; every little village in that region had its very own champions who gained their celebrity status by participating and winning the regular championship tournaments, the wrestling gatherings which attracted the sporting youth and men.
The traditions of running such annual wrestling championship tournaments, let’s say, in the city of Nimes, (Department Gard, in Midi) can be traced back all the way to the 14th century. According to the various sources (some of which I attached to this article) wrestling competitions in the form of public prize wrestling matches were first introduced in the city of Nimes by the consuls of the city in 1351, and since then such regular annual championships were held there on the day of Nativity of Virgin, on September 8th. This old tradition of having such contests survived all the way till the 1800s, although matches in the old amphitheater of Nimes became very rare, and usually traditional wrestling matches occurred between the best men of the two neighboring villages in that area.
The French writer called Désiré Nisard (1806-1888) referred to the style of wrestling which was practiced in Nimes as the “ancient Greek wrestling” or “lutte à la manière antique, entre deux adversaires armés du gantelet, ou tout luisants d'huile.”
Originally, in the Middle Ages according to the ‘Antique’ tradition the two wrestling gladiators appeared stark naked in the ring, often having their bodies besmeared with an oil, later the rules were changed and the loincloth became the only attire of the fighters.
The rules of the Nimes’ wrestling competitions according to the different sources appeared to be very similar to those of the modern freestyle wrestling (in which any hold of the person’s body is allowed) and required that “the back and the head to be placed flat on the ground” or “cherchent à se renverser sur le dos; on n'est vaincu que si le dos et la tête ont touché contre terre”. My understanding of this rules is that the back of the opponent’s head had to be placed on the ground too so that there was no doubts among those who were present that the defeated wrestler lies totally horizontal on his back and his both shoulders are flat as well.
Apparently in this sport taking opponent down wasn’t enough to win the match, as a matter of fact a takedown was just a beginning of the match and the most of the struggle was going on the ground, which basically was a prolonged grapple, par-terre wrestling, for achieving the dominant uppermost position: Quand l'un des deux lutteurs est renversé, tout es poir n'est pas encore perdu ; si sa tête n'a pas touché, tout son village crie : « A pas touca ! a pas touca ! (il n'a pas touché) ! » La lutte continue alors, et la fortune peut changer. Quelquefois il y a doute; alors des deux côtés opposés s'élèvent des cris confus: « A toucal a pas touca! (il a touché, il n'a pas touché ) ! » Des arbitres du choix des deux partis décident le point.”
STATISTIQUE DU DÉPARTEMENT DU GARD
PAR M . HECTOR RIVOIRE ,
Vol 1, 1842
By Jacques Nicolas Hector Rivoire.
“L'exercice de la lutte était autorisé à Nimes, dès l'année 1351, on mettait même beaucoup de soin à cette époque à exciter la jeunesse aux combats et aux jeux gym-nastiques. La lutte se faisait en public, un seul jour de l'année, le 8 septembre, jour de la nativité de la Vierge. Les consuls décernaient un prix au vainqueur; en 1551, ee fut une pièce d'étoffe. L'usage de cet exercice à jour fixe, dut varier, puisque nous voyons qu'en 1373, la lutte se fit en public, au mois d'août, le jour de la fête de St-Laurent, et que les consuls donnèrent un mouton pour prix. Quelques années après, le jour de la St-Louis fut choisi pour une lutte solennelle; l'historien de Nimes nous apprend que les consuls accordèrent, en 1399, une pièce de drap au vainqueur. Il ajoute que l'usage de cet exercice dura longtemps, puisqu'en 1483. malgré la pauvreté générale, on luttait, à Nimes, au mois d'août, et l'intervalle d'un exercice à l'autre n'était plus que d'une semaine. On avait toujours choisi les dimanches pendant les mois d'août et septembre; les consuls y assistaient chaque fois précédés de deux ménétriers qui jouaient du tympanon et de la flûte.

Le prix était habituellement une pièce de drap, et une collation pour les lutteurs; toutes les dépenses étaient supportées par la ville. Cet exercice fut encore favorisé pendant un grand nombre d'années, ainsi que les jeux de l'arbalète et de l'are. Des jeux dont nous venons de parler, il n'y a que la lutte qui se soit maintenue dans nos mœurs. En arrivant jusqu'à nous, cet exercice a changé de caractère. Ce n'est plus aujourd'hui, et surtout dans la ville de Nimes, une réjouissauce préparée par l'auto-rité elle-même, et appliquée gratuitement aux jours de réjouissance publique. L'es-prit du commerce s'en est emparé, et l'on est parvenu à exploiter la curiosité des habitans au profit des entrepreneurs qui prennent la haute direction de ces jeux. Dans la campagne, la lutte a mieux conservé les marques de son ancienne origine; les fêtes votives s'y passent rarement sans que l'autorité municipale ne décerne un prix à l'athlète qui sort vainqueur du combat. Ce prix se compose ordinairement d'une tasse d'argent, d'une écharpe ou d'un caleçon d'honneur, quelquefois même d'une somme d'argent.”

“Wrestling was allowed in Nîmes as early as 1351, and at that time, much care was taken to excite young people in combat and gymnastic games. Wrestling took place in public on one day of the year, September 8, the day of the Virgin's birth. The consuls awarded a prize to the winner; in 1551, it was a piece of cloth. The practice of this exercise on a fixed day must have varied, since we see that in 1373, wrestling took place in public in August, on the feast day of St. Lawrence, and the consuls gave a sheep as a prize. A few years later, the day of St. Louis was chosen for a solemn fight; the historian of Nîmes tells us that the consuls awarded a piece of cloth to the winner in 1399. He adds that the practice of this exercise lasted a long time, since 1483. Despite the general poverty, wrestling was held in Nîmes in August, and the interval between one exercise and the next was no more than a week. Sundays had always been chosen during the months of August and September; the consuls attended each time preceded by two minstrels who played the tympanum and the flute.

The prize was usually a piece of cloth and a snack for the wrestlers; all expenses were borne by the city. This exercise was still favored for a great number of years, as were the crossbow and arena games. Of the games we have just spoken of, only wrestling has remained in our customs. In reaching us, this exercise has changed in character. It is no longer today, and especially in the city of Nimes, a revelry prepared by the authorities themselves and applied free of charge on days of public rejoicing. The spirit of commerce has taken hold of it, and it has been possible to exploit the curiosity of the inhabitants for the benefit of the entrepreneurs who take over the high management of these games. In the countryside, wrestling has better preserved the marks of its ancient origin; the votive festivals rarely take place there without the municipal authority awarding a prize to the athlete who emerges victorious from the combat. This prize usually consists of a silver cup, a sash or a pair of honorary drawers, sometimes even a sum of money.”

Histoire et description des principales villes de l’Europe. France. Nîmes, By Désiré Nisard, 1855
Text also appeared in ‘Dictionnaire de la Conversation et de la Lecture’, Vol 40, 1832.

“La lutte que les consuls de la eité du quinzième siècle encouragenient et récompensaient par le don d'une pièce de drap vert, n'a pas cessé d'être une coutume locale à Nimes, mais plus particulièrement dans les villages de son territoire. Le prix est voté par le conseil municipal de l'endroit; c'est d'ordinaire une montre ou une tasse d'argent. Dans un champ nou-vellement moissonné, deux lutteurs, représentants de deux villages ri-vaux, cherchent à se renverser sur le dos; on n'est vaincu que si le dos et la tête ont touché contre terre.

La population des deux villages, rangée des deux côtés, assiste avee toute l'anxiété de l'honneur local aux alterna tives de la lutie. Quand l'un des deux lutteurs est renversé, tout espoir n'est pas encore perdu; si sa tête n'a pas touché, tout son village crie: A pas touca! a pas toura (n'a pas touché)! La lutte continue alors, et la fortune peut changer. Quelquefois il y a doute; alors des deux côtés opposés s'élèvent des cris confus: A touca! a pas touca! il a touché, il n'a pas touché. Des arbitres, du choix des deux partis, décident le point. La musique des luttes, c'est le tambourin et le hautbois. Le vainqueur traverse son village en triomphe, au son de ces instruments, précédé d'une bannière ornée de banderolles, d'où pendent les prix du combat. Ses amis l'entoureut en chantant; les enfants déjà grands le regardent passer avec des larmes d'émulation. Le vainen n'est point déshonoré; il s'en retourne à son village, et songe à prendre sa revanche à la vogue prochaine; c'est le nom de la fête. Il y a des vogues on figurent jusqu'à huit lutteurs, autour desquels sont rassemblés huit villages.

C'est le dimanche, et dans les foires, que l'Amphithéâtre de Nimes sert de champ-clos à des lutteurs. Mais c'est un spectacle à peu près aban-donné. La bourgeoisie ne se dérange pas pour si peu; les dames de Nimes ne veulent point froisser leur toilette du jour de foire en s'asseyant sur des gradins ruines ou sur la place de ces gradins.”

“The wrestling that the consuls of the fifteenth century encouraged and rewarded with the gift of a piece of green cloth, has not ceased to be a local custom in Nimes, but more particularly in the villages of its territory. The prize is voted by the local municipal council; it is usually a watch or a silver cup. In a newly harvested field, two wrestlers, representatives of two rival villages, try to turn each other on their backs; one is only defeated if the back and head touch the ground.

The population of the two villages, ranged on both sides, attends with all the anxiety of local honor the alternations of the fight. When one of the two wrestlers is knocked down, all hope is not yet lost; if his head has not touched, his whole village shouts: A pas touca! a pas touca (has not touched)! The fight then continues, and fortune can change. Sometimes there is doubt; then from the two opposing sides rise confused cries: A touca! a pas touca! he has touched, he has not touched. Referees, chosen by both parties, decide the point. The music of the fights is the tambourine and the oboe. The victor crosses his village in triumph, to the sound of these instruments, preceded by a banner adorned with streamers, from which hang the prizes of the fight. His friends surround him singing; the already grown children watch him pass with tears of emulation. The vain man is not dishonored; he returns to his village, and thinks of taking his revenge at the next vogue; this is the name of the festival. There are vogues in which there are up to eight wrestlers, around whom eight villages are gathered.

It is on Sundays, and at fairs, that the Nîmes Amphitheater serves as a closed-off arena for wrestlers. But it is a spectacle that is almost abandoned. The bourgeoisie does not bother about such a small thing; the ladies of Nîmes do not want to spoil their fair-day attire by sitting on ruined stands or on the square in front of these stands.”

The wrestling traditions of Midi also got mentioned by the pioneer of French gymnastics Colonel F. Amoros y Ondeano (1770-1848) in his famous “Manuel d’education physique, gymanstique et morale” (1830).

“Dans le département du Gard, près d'Avi-gnon, canton de Roquemaur, il y a des lut-teurs fort vigoureux, qui remportent des prix établis par les communes. Ils mettent beaucoup de politesse et de règle à ces exercices, et il faut combattre trois fois pour être déclaré vain-queur. Cette pratique est prise des anciens, qui devaient combattre trois fois de suite, et terras-ser au moins deux fois leur antagoniste avant de remporter le prix.”

“Nous avons vu à Paris une autre lutte plus simple, plus noble et plus belle, où le croc-en-jambe est défendu, et qui consiste à renverser son antagoniste par terre, en le faisant tomber sur le dos, comme nous l'avons dit.”

“In the Gard department, near Avignon, in the canton of Roquemaur, there are very vigorous wrestlers who win prizes established by the communes. They pay great attention to these exercises and adhere to strict rules, and one must fight three times to be declared the winner. This practice is taken from the ancients, who had to fight three times in a row and knock down their opponent at least twice before winning the prize.”

“We have seen in Paris another, simpler, more noble, and more beautiful form of wrestling, where tripping is forbidden, and which consists of knocking one's opponent to the ground, making them fall on their back, as we have mentioned.”

An interesting note on French prize-wrestling appears in Hampshire Chronicle, dated September 25, 1815.

"The Journal du Gard, of the 9th of September, confirms what has been said of the re-establishment of order in that vicinity. An entertainment has been given at Nismes by the Officers of the French National Guard to the Austrian Officers and troops. Before ten o'clock in the morning au immense population filled the benches and all the places of the vast Roman Amphitheatre of that ancient city, where a long temporary table was erected for the accommodation of Count Neipperg and his Staff, and for the Constituted Authorities. The amusement of a bull fight was exhibited, and a wrestling match between the most famous wrestlers of the neighbourhood. The novelty of this exhibition appeared very diverting to the General and the Austrian Officers."

What I personally find remarkable in short article is that it says how watching a prize-wrestling match after the Provencal fashion was quite entertaining, because their wrestling was obviously fun to watch.

Another interesting report appeared in Bell's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle, dated July 15, 1827.

“FRENCH WRESTLING. A wrestling match, announced at Lyons, on the 3d instant, gave occasion to a disturbance, which may yet be followed by unpleasant consequences. About three thousand spectators were assembled in a place prepared for the purpose, to witness a contest between the wrestlers of the south, and some of the inhabitants of Givor, celebrated for their strength and agility. From some cause or other, the match could not be begun at the hour ap-pointed. Very soon, signs of great discontent on the part of the people were visible, which were soon followed by dangerous excesses. The multitude revenged themselves for their disappointment, on the wood-work of the circus; and, in a moment, it was all demolished. The military on service tried, in vain, to stop the outrages, and it was only when the theatre was de-stroyed, that the crowd retired. This event is not calculated to encourage those who wish to naturalise English boxing among us.”

For whichever reason that prize-wrestling match didn’t take place, it appears that there were certain powers behind the curtains that didn’t want it to happen, and that upset the enourmous crowds of wrestling fans.

Probably the most descriptive accounts of historical Provencal wrestling were provided by Henri Rolland in his short story called “The Wrestler” from the 1st volume of "Les français peints par eux-mêmes : encyclopédie morale du dix-neuvième siècle" (1841), and in the article by Jean Brunet from the 1882 book called “Revue Des Langues Romanes.” I of course attach both these historical references to this article, let’s have a closer look at both these references.

I would like to proceed first with the latter one. Jean Brunet in his Revue Des Langues Romanes, in the article called Étude de Moers Provencales par les proverbs et dictions thus spoke of the popular wrestling fashions of Provence:

“La lutte provençale diffère peu de la lutte grecque, un des jeux de la palestre. - Les deux combattants y cherchaient à se renverser l'un l'autre à terre par toute espèce d'efforts physiques, excepté les coups, qui étaient défendus; il leur était même permis d'employer toutes les ruses que pouvait imaginer leur malice. On n'attachait pas moins, dans la lutte, une ex-trême importance à la grâce, à l'élégance des attitudes et des mouvements. Nous avons comme les Grecs deux espèces de lutte: la lutte debout, lucho dis ome, a lutte des hommes », dans laquelle les adversaires peuvent se saisir de la tête à la ceinture; et la lucho libro ou lucho de miéchome, « lutte libre ou lutte des demi-hommes », pour les enfants et les jeunes gens, où tout est permis excepté les coups. Il y en a bien une troisième, qu'on appelle, comme dans l'antiquité, lutto à terro; mais elle n'est pas en faveur. Cette lutte continuait à terre après que l'un des combattants ou tous les deux étaient tombés. Il y a cette différence dans tous les genres, que, chez les Grecs, la lutte se terminait lorsque l'un des deux lutteurs, ne pouvant parvenir à se relever, s'avouait vaincu; et que, dans nos usages, le vaincu est celui qui en tombant sur le dos touche des deux épaules à la fois.” (Revue Des Langues Romanes).

“Provençal wrestling differs little from Greek wrestling, one of the games of the palaestra. - The two combatants sought to knock each other to the ground by all kinds of physical effort, except blows, which were forbidden; they were even allowed to use all the tricks their malice could imagine. No less importance was attached in wrestling to grace, to the elegance of attitudes and movements. We have, like the Greeks, two kinds of wrestling: standing wrestling, lucho dis ome, a struggle of men,” in which the adversaries can grab each other from the head to the belt; and lucho libro or lucho de miéchome, “free wrestling or wrestling of half-men,” for children and young people, where everything is permitted except blows. There is indeed a third, which is called, as in antiquity, lutto à terro (ground wrestling); but it is not in favor. This wrestling continued on the ground after one or both of the combatants had fallen. There is this difference in all genres, that, among the Greeks, the fight ended when one of the two wrestlers, unable to get up, admitted defeat; and that, in our customs, the vanquished is the one who, falling on his back, touches both shoulders at once.” (Revue Des Langues Romanes).

“Voici les plus connus :

  1. Prendre à la brasseto. “Prendre à bras-le-corps.”


Enlacer le buste de l'adversaire et faire fléchir ses reins en arrière, afin qu'il tombe sur les deux omoplates.

  1. Auboura en pes. “Soulever de tout sonpoids.”


Saisir l'homme par les flancs ou sous les aisselles, le sou lever et le renverser sur le dos.

  1. Faire lou tour de tèsto. “Faire le tour ou le coup de la tête”.


Ce coup se fait en tournant vivement le dos au lutteur ad verse et le saisissant parle cou ; puis, par un mouvementtrès prompt des bras et des reins, on le force à quitter terre, la tête reste'comme centre à l'épaule de l'attaquant, pendant que les pieds décrivent un grand cercle dans l'espace. Ce cer cle décrit, le vaincu se trouve couché sur ledos aux pieds de son vainqueur.

  1. Faire lou tour dóu bras. “Faire le coup du bras”.


Ce coup ressemble au tour de la tête. Seulement, au lieu de prendre latête de l'homme, on le saisit par le bras en passant sous son aisselle. Onlui fait accomplir par les mêmes moyens une culbute complète, qui l'amène les deux épaules à terre.

  1. Faire lou cop d'ànco, o lou tour de l'ànco. “Donner le coup de hanche.”


Saisir le lutteur par le cou ou par le torse, leplacer sur la hanche droite et le renverser.

  1. Lou tour de la clàu.


Qui consiste à saisir son adversaire à deux mains etpar la nuque.

  1. Lou tour de l'artèu. « Le coup de l'orteil. »


Lequel consiste, je crois, à peser du pied sur celui de son partner, à le fixer, pour ainsi dire au sol, tandis qu'on attaque fortement la partie supérieure du corps de l'homme. Ce tour, comme lou tour dòu Bàsco, croc-en-jambe, ou Faire la cambeto, est mis au titre des malices qui ne sont pas admises dans la lutte des hommes, mais seulement dans la lutte libre. Les Basques sont très-habiles à faire ce croc-en-jambe, en portant rapidement un pied sur lejarret d'un adversaire à
qui ils appliquent en même temps un coup dans l'estomac, ce qui le jette aussitôt à la renverse.
En Provence, dans la lutte libre, le croc-en-jambe est per mis, mais non le coup dans l'estomac.

Here are the most well-known:

  1. Take a brasseto. "Take hold by the body."


Encircle the opponent's torso and bend their lower back backward so that he falls on both shoulder blades.

  1. Auboura en pes. "Lift with all one's weight."


Seize the man by the hips or under the armpits, lift him, and turn him onto his back.

  1. Do lou tour de testo. "Turn around or strike the head."


This strike is performed by sharply turning the back on the opposing wrestler and grabbing him by the neck; then, with a rapid movement of the arms and hips, as the opponent leaves the ground, the head remains centered at the attacker's shoulder, while the feet circle in a large space. Once this circle is completed, the defeated wrestler lies on his back at the feet of his victor.

  1. Perform the arm twist."Perform the arm twist."


This twist is similar to the head twist. Only, instead of taking the man's head, he is seized by the arm, passing it under his armpit. He is made to perform a complete somersault using the same methods, which brings both shoulders to the ground.

  1. Perform the cop d'ànco, or tour de l'ànco. "Deliver the hip twist."


Seize the wrestler by the neck or torso, place him on his right hip, and knock him over.

  1. Tour de la clàu.


This consists of seizing your opponent with both hands by the neck.

  1. Tour de l'arteu. "The toe twist."


Which consists, I believe, of pressing one's foot against one's partner's, pinning it, so to speak, to the ground, while strongly attacking the upper part of the man's body. This trick, like the Basque trick, tripping, or making the cambeto, is listed among the tricks not permitted in men's wrestling, but only in freestyle wrestling. The Basques are very skilled at performing this trip, by quickly landing a foot on the hamstring of an opponent, simultaneously delivering a blow to the stomach, which immediately knocks him backward. In Provence, in freestyle wrestling, tripping is permitted, but not a blow to the stomach.

“Cependant la lutte a recommencé. Un des lutteurs a été renversé par un coup douteux ou déloyal : Apas touca! « Il n'a pas touché »,s'écrie-t-on de toutes parts. Ou : A touca que d'uno espalo.

“Il n'a touché que d'une épaule.” Lalutte est à recommencer. Il n'est vaincu qu'à moitié.
Fòro lou round! “Hors le cirque !” Ce cri se fait entendre lorsqu'on voit un lutteur brutal ou un incapable. C'est dire : Chassez-le, il est indigne de lutter enpublic.

Dans le cas actuel, tout s'est passé suivant les règles. L'un des deux lutteurs a été déjà renversé deux fois sans avoir été déclaré vaincu ; il persiste à vouloir continuer le combat. L'abattu veut toujours continuer. (Revue Des Langues Romanes).

A tres fes soun lucho. Trois chutes finissent la lutte, lui dit-on. Tres cop fan lucho. Tertia salvet. Il est d'usage que, lorsqu'un adversaire a été renversé trois fois sans toucher cependant, mais que la force de l'autre lut-teur est reconnue bien supérieure à la sienne, il est considéré comme vaincu. A la dernière passe, le plus faible, ou le moins adroit, est définitivement lucha. Ses deux épaules sont marquées; elles portent l'empreinte de l'arène, c'est concluant. A touca! A bèn touca! « Il a touché complétement. n Le fifre et le tambour jouent l'air de la victoire. Se n'en toumbo tres! S'il tombe trois hommes», A gagna li joio, Il reçoit le prix de sa vaillance. C'est ici une bourse conte-nant 30 on 50 écus; là, c'est un bœuf vivant, ailleurs un che-val, etc., etc. Mais le jour fait place à la nuit. Le soleil a baissé. Les an-ciens du village s'en vont philosophant. Eux aussi, jadis, ils pratiquaient le salutaire exercice de la lutte; plusieurs même ont brillé dans le rond, dont témoignent encore les tasso d'ar-gent, lis chèrpo e lis escarsoun, coupes d'argent, écharpes bro-dées et caleçons d'honneur. Précieux trophées qui attestent leur vigueur passée.” (Revue Des Langues Romanes).

“However, the fight has begun again. One of the wrestlers has been knocked down by a dubious or unfair blow: Apas touca! "He didn't land," cries everyone. Or: A touca que d'uno espalo. "He only landed with one shoulder." The fight must begin again. He is only half defeated. Fòro lou round! "Out of the circus!" This cry is heard when one sees a brutal or incompetent wrestler. It means: Drive him out, he is unworthy of wrestling in public.

In the current case, everything happened according to the rules. One of the two wrestlers has already been knocked down twice without having been declared defeated; he persists in wanting to continue the fight. The defeated one still wants to continue. (Revue Des Langues Romanes).

“A tres fes soun lucho. Three falls end the fight,” he is told. “Tres cop fan lucho. Tertia salvet.” It is customary that when an opponent has been knocked down three times without touching, but the strength of the other wrestler is recognized as much superior to his own, he is considered defeated. At the last pass, the weakest, or the least skillful, is definitively lucha. His two shoulders are marked; they bear the imprint of the arena, it is conclusive. A touca! A bèn touca! “He has touched completely.” The fife and drum play the air of victory. Se n'en toumbo tres! If three men fall,” A gagna li joio, “He receives the prize of his valour.” Here is a purse containing 30 or 50 crowns; there, it is a live ox, elsewhere a horse, etc., etc. But day gives way to night. The sun has lowered. The village elders go off to philosophize. They too, in the past, practiced the salutary exercise of wrestling; several even shone in the ring, as still testified by the silver tasso, lis chèrpo e lis escarsoun, silver cups, embroidered sashes and honorary drawers. Precious trophies which attest to their past vigor.” (Revue Des Langues Romanes).
The Brunet’s description is pretty vivid and could have been considered the most accurate if there wasn’t in existence a somewhat different written account on Provencal wrestling the one given by Henri Rolland.

“Il y a deux sortes de lutteurs de même qu'il y a deux sortes de luttes. Il faut, comme on le pense, à qui en-treprend ce metier (disons cet art), toute la plenitude des forces, la réalisation compléte des avantages physi ques; aussi le lutteur est-il à la fleur de l'âge. Mais, & même proportion d'années, la nature souvent s'étant montrés luxuriante envers quelques-uns, tandis qu'elle n'a été que riche envers les autres, cette disparité a né cessité une division. Il y a donc les hommes et les mice hommes. Ce sont les premiers qui commencent la lutte. La lutte libre, réservée aux miechommes, leur donne la faculté de saisir leur adversaire par tout le corps, et leur permet de poursuivre la victoire sur l'homme renversé quand il n'a pas touché des deux omoplates. La lutte de la ceinture ne donne prise que de la ceinture en haut. Dans toutes deux, le croc-en-jambe, dit cambette, est expressément défendu. Tous ont fait cercle; les premiers rangs assis, les der niers debout, les musiciens à leur place. (Le Lutteur).

“There are two kinds of wrestlers, just as there are two kinds of wrestling. It is necessary, as one thinks, for anyone who undertakes this trade (let us say this art), to have the fullest possible strength, the complete realization of physical advantages; thus the wrestler is in the prime of life. But, and even proportion of years, nature has often shown itself luxuriant towards some, while it has been only rich towards others, this disparity has necessitated a division. There are therefore men and half-men. It is the first who begin the wrestling. Free wrestling, reserved for half-men, gives them the ability to seize their opponent by the whole body, and allows them to pursue the victory over the overthrown man when he has not touched with both shoulder blades. The waist-line wrestling only gives a grip from the belt above. In both, the trip, called the cambette, is expressly forbidden. All formed a circle; the first rows seated, the last standing, the musicians in their places. (The Wrestler).

It would be fair to say that both those sources of information despite being very similar yet show some important differences and contradictions which for a very long time I wasn’t able to logically explain.

Based on these two main sources in traditional Provencal classification of prize-wrestlers as per their size and physical strength there were two championship classes (or divisions) of local wrestlers:

  1. Men’s Wrestling (Lucho dis ome) was a competition of really strong men and exceptionally strong men.
  2. Half-men’s Wrestling (Lucho de miechome) was a competition of moderately strong men, young adults and youth.

And there also were two (or three, depending on the source) distinctive styles of Provencal wrestling:

1) Lucho de la centuro en aut, lutte de la ceinture en haut, wrestling above the waist, which was a standing wrestling style which allowed holds of any part of the human’s body from the head to the waist, including the dangerous headlocks (holds around the neck). In this style croc-en-jambe or use of legs and feet for throwing (hooking and tripping) was strictly prohibited. Jean Brunet speaks of this particular wrestling skill which is known as cambeto in Provence as of the very popular among the wrestlers of Basque origin.

2) Lucho Libro, Lutte Libre, free wrestling, which basically was a freestyle wrestling. In this style of wrestling holds of any part of the person’s body were allowed. Technically any fair method of throwing (taking opponent down) was considered legal except for knocking him down by punching him with the fist. Although there is a little contradiction between the two texts with regards of the allowed techniques, one of them makes it clear that using legs and feet for throwing weren’t allowed in free wrestling either.

Historically the winners of the competitions received the piece of green cloth and in modern times the prizes were usually a silver champion cup, or a champion sash that was worn across the chest, or a pair of fancy embroidered pants. With the emerging of professional wrestling the most common was awarding the champion a prize-money.

It appears that oftentimes the wrestling above the waist was simply referred to as the Men’s Wrestling because the big and physically strong men according to the local fashions would not resort to the strategies of Free Wrestling (such as using legs and feet for taking opponent down as well as rolling on the ground for the purpose of achieving the dominant position) which were designed for a smaller and less strong men.

There were 7 most common wrestling holds (above the waist) in Provencal wrestling, these were: hold around the waist (bear-hug and throw), body-lift (by the hips, or under the arm-pits and throw), head-throw (defensive wrestler is grabbed by the neck and pulled over the back of the attacker, very dangerous “heels over head” kind of throw), shoulder-throw (flying mare, defensive wrestler is grabbed by the arm and pulled over the back of the attacker, very dangerous “heels over head” kind of throw), hip-toss (hold around the neck/or torso followed by the cross-buttock), hold by the neck (hands on the neck followed by the throwing attempt, dangerous throw), and tripping (used exclusively in Lutte Libre/Free Wrestling).

In both Provencal styles all attacks were conducted with the flat hand; and the objective of the wrestling match was to cause opponent’s shoulders to touch the ground at the same time. It was also mentioned that if one of the two wrestlers was taken down three times and even if his both shoulders weren’t on the ground he was deemed to be defeated. Interestingly, in the English wrestling terminology such incomplete falls were known as foils and just like in French wrestling, the English wrestling also equaled three foils to a fair back fall. The championship matches were two out of three falls, similar to those of the Ancient Greeks. Also it appears that in Southern France wrestling tournaments usually consisted of the three elimination rounds, so to say to win the main prize a competitor had to beat at least three men one after the other.

One of the above said sources also mentioned the third kind of struggle:

3) Lutto a terro, the ground wrestling, in which the struggle continues on the ground after the fall of both competitors. The only known fact about this style, at that point, was that it never was really popular among the local men. And that statement sounded as if neither wrestling above the waist nor free wrestling ever included the par-terre wrestling.

So to say, the main contradiction between these two sources was that according to one of them wrestling on the ground wasn’t a third separate style of wrestling but rather formed an essential part of the free wrestling contest in which you could attack a person who was already taken down without necessity of letting him to get up for renewing the contest as it was done in wrestling above the waist.

In 1854 a noted French wrestler named Mr. Henrie who weighed 13st, and stood nearly 6ft in height and whose “manly form and fine proportions were pattern for a sculptor” has visited England and promoted his sport the “Mode a la Francais” (which is assumed to be the French Graeco-Roman style) at the Cumberland and Westmorland (aka Back-Hold) gathering in Newcastle upon Tyne during the Newcastle Easter Sports. According to the 1885 book called “Reminiscences in the life of Thomas Longmire (ex-champion of England)” by J. Wilson which gives a detailed account of that event French wrestling ruleset consisted of 6 articles and the last, the sixth article stated: “If a man is thrown three times on one shoulder only, he must be declared beat.”

Another important detail was that the wrestling matches according the French rules which Mr Henrie had with English Back-Hold stars didn’t feature any ground wrestling which is an essential part of the modern Graeco-Roman wrestling. This is understandable since no Cumbrian wrestler would ever agree to have among conditions the par terre wrestling. This is first of all due to the common English concept of the fall in wrestling (both in Cumberland & Westmorland and Cornish & Devon styles) according to which the fall is possible only from the standing position, i.e. flying fall, an actual throw or a takedown.

The fourth article of the same French wrestling rules gives the following definition of the fall: “To be declared the conqueror, you must force your adversary’s shoulders to touch the ground.”

In the 1870s the French definition of the fall (both shoulders of the fallen shall touch the ground at the same time) would be expanded by adding: “So as to be fairly seen by the public.” And soon the rule which allowed quick falls, or touchfalls, using the current international wrestling terminology (the flying and rolling falls), will be abolished, and it is after that only pinning falls would matter and that fact assumed the ground wrestling.

All the above facts clearly show that even in the early 1850s the old “3 foils” rule of the Provencal wrestling was sometimes still in use as a part of rules of a relatively “newborn” French Greco-Roman wrestling style (aka Lutte a mains plates wrestling with flat hands) which was still in transitional period of its evolution.

Interestingly, in 1854 Mr. Henrie lost his first French wrestling match to J. Ivison of Carlisle, who was awarded a gold sovereign for that, and then he lost a second match too, to W. Palmer of Bewcastle. Being very unsatisfied with his defeats, Henrie attacked Palmer when the latter was raising and put him flat on the ground. This his behavior Henrie did explain, apparently despite being undermost, he stated, he wasn’t on his both shoulders, so to speak for him this bout wasn’t over yet.

Notably, the “Rules of Wrestling” compiled by a famous French wrestling pioneer called Jean Dupuis appeared in the programme of “Circus Gymnastics” which advertised his wrestling match against a German strongman named Carl Gottlieb Schulze. . I am very thankful to my friend, a wrestling historian Mr. Michael Murphy (USA) for sharing this unique historical document with me. That match was supposed to happen on January 2nd, 1835. The wrestling style of that contest could be simply referred to as a “Standing Greco-Roman”, using our current international wrestling terminology. According to the aforementioned rules (Articles 1 and 2) the fall on both shoulders did count only in case of such throw being given from the standing position, and if it didn’t happen that particular way then the wrestler(s) had to get up and renew their contest, so to speak wrestling on the ground wasn’t allowed.

“1) In order to receive an award, the wrestler has to throw his opponent onto his back. The one whose (both) shoulders didn’t touch the ground as a result of such a throw is not considered defeated; he is allowed to get up (from the floor) and start the wrestle all over again.

2) The man who is thrown on both shoulders must leave the arena.”

Wrestling was allowed only above the waist, and with “flat hands”, the use of legs and feet for throwing was expressly forbidden by the rules, any unfair action was strictly prohibited. If the victory wasn’t decided in 15 mins the match was called a draw

Interestingly, even before the French (Greco-Roman) style was popularized all around the world it was both traditional Provencal wrestling styles, the Men’s Wrestling and the Free Wrestling that were first exported abroad by the wrestling pioneers from Midi, France. Among such pioneers were popular French wrestlers, Mr. Roux who promoted his sport in the city of Milan (Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom), and “King of Wrestlers” Mr. Charles Arpin who was very active in Germany as well as in the United States.

After the years of research I was lucky to finally find the uniquely preserved rules of Lutte D’Hommes (Men’s Wrestling) as provided by the famous champion Charles Arpin himself. It was a German translation of what I at the moment thought was an original Provencal ruleset. The described wrestling style was basically a standing Greco-Roman in which only wrestling above the waist was legit, and wrestling on the ground or attacking the person who was down was explicitly prohibited:

“The one whose flat back hits the ground first is considered defeated. If a wrestler falls on his hands, knees or any other part of the body, this is invalid and the opponent must give him time to get up and begin the struggle again. - If two wrestlers fall at the same time, the one whose back touches the ground first is declared defeated.” (1840s).

Notably, the original rules of Greco-Roman (the seven articles which appeared in Leon Ville’s famous Lutte et les Lutteurs) wrestling suggested that wrestlers should decide prior to the match whether they want to wrestle on the ground or not at all, and if they choose the par-terre to be part of their wrestling then for how exactly long such wrestling is allowed.

A very informative passage on Lutte D’Hommes wrestling tournament is presented in the Lettres sur Nismes et le Midi (Vol 1), 1840, by J.F.A. Perrot.

“LUTTE D'HOMMES. Nos lutteurs sont presque tous du Midi , et , pour la plupart , d'une taille ordinaire , vifs, bien proportion nés , de vrais modèles d'académie. La lutte n'est pasun exercice dangereux : des réglemens défendent de pin cer les chairs , de donner le croc-en-jambe (excepté dans la lutte franche) et de frapper. Les lutteurs sont nus etn'ont qu'un caleçon. Quinze ou vingt mille spectateurs sont placés sur les gradins, sur les moindres anfractuosités: une pierre, une ruine, tout sert de siége aux curieux qui ont souvent de la peineà trouver place. Le hautbois , suivi du tambourin, fait le tour de l'arène en jouant l'air : Que ceux qui veulent lutter se présentent ; pour qui voudra lutter , le rond est fait. (Traduction dupatois. )

“MEN’S WRESTLING. Our wrestlers are almost all from the South, and, for the most part, of an ordinary height, lively, well-proportioned, born, true models of academy. Wrestling is not a dangerous exercise: regulations forbid pinching the flesh, tripping (except in free wrestling) and striking. The wrestlers are naked and wear only underpants. Fifteen or twenty thousand spectators are placed on the stands, on the smallest crevices: a stone, a ruin, anything serves as a seat for the curious who often have difficulty finding a place. The oboe, followed by the tambourine, goes around the arena playing the tune: Let those who want to wrestle present themselves; for those who want to wrestle, the circle is made. (Translation from the dialect.)

Deux lutteurs entrent dans l'arène ; ils prennent une poignée de sable (pour empêcher les mains de glisser); ils s'abordent franchement , et se donnent une poignée de main. Maintenant , ils s'éloignent et s'observent en tournant et décrivant un cercle ; ils s'approchent ; l'un veut saisir une main qui est retirée aussitôt ; la tête basse , les bras placés derrière eux ou serrés au corps, ils marchent en écartant les jambes et se penchant en avant ; tantôt les deux têtes sont appuyées l'une contre l'autre, ou bien, une main sur l'épaule , ils continuent à tourner ; tout-à-coup unlutteur saisit le poignet gau che de l'autre , passe devant , fait lévier avec son bras gauche qu'il a passé sous celuide son adversaire, tourné àdroite , s'incline , le force àmarcher presque àrecu lons et le jette sur le dos en le faisanttoucherdes deux épaules , ce qui est de rigueur. (C'estle tour de bras).

Two wrestlers enter the arena; they take a handful of sand (to prevent their hands from slipping); they approach each other frankly, and shake hands. Now, they move away and observe each other while turning and describing a circle; they approach; one wants to seize a hand which is immediately withdrawn; with their heads lowered, their arms placed behind them or close to their bodies, they walk with their legs apart and leaning forward; sometimes the two heads are pressed against each other, or else, with a hand on the shoulder, they continue to turn; suddenly one wrestler seizes the left wrist of the other, passes in front, levers it with his left arm which he has passed under that of his opponent, turned to the right, bends, forces him to walk almost backward and throws him on his back making him touch both shoulders, which is de rigueur. (It's the arm circumference).

Un autre adversaire se présente ; mais il ne livrera pas samain , il redoute le tourde bras qui avaincuson prédécesseur ; il tient ses mains serrées sur sa poitrine et échappe dix fois aux attaques du premier; mais celui ci jette un de ses bras autour desa ceinture sans pou voir toutefois joindre les mains par derrière , car le se cond lui oppose ses coudes qui l'éloignent et lui serrent la poitrine ; malgré la douleurqu'il doit en ressentir , il embrasse le torse de son adversaire , le tire à lui et le soulève. C'est Hercule etAnthée : le premierveut enle ver le second, qui se cramponne à laterre poury pui ser de nouvelles forces ; mais il parvientenfin àfaire passer le dernier sur ses épaules et lejette sur le sable. C'est le tourde ceinture , pendant lequel les poses les plus belles et les plus athlétiques ont été prises et quit tées pour faire place à d'autres. Le vainqueur doit renverser trois hommes pour ga gner le prix déterminé. Telles sont nos luttes.”

Another opponent presents himself; but he will not give up his hand, he fears the arm-twisting that defeated his predecessor; he holds his hands tightly to his chest and escapes ten times the attacks of the first; but the latter throws one of his arms around his belt without being able to join his hands behind, because the second opposes him with his elbows which push him away and squeeze his chest; despite the pain he must feel, he embraces the chest of his adversary, pulls him towards him and lifts him up. It is Hercules and Antheus: the first wants to carry off the second, who clings to the ground to draw new strength from it; but he finally succeeds in making the last one pass over his shoulders and throws him onto the sand. It is the arm-twisting, during which the most beautiful and athletic poses have been taken and left to make room for others. The winner must overthrow three men to win the determined prize. Such are our struggles.”

A brilliant account on the traditional Provencal style of wrestling is given in the Statistique du departement des Bouches-du-Rhone, Vol 3 (Marseille, 1826) by M. Count de Villeneuve.

La Lutte. C'est un des exercices gymnastiques qui attire le plus la foule des curieux. L'adresse est réunie à la force, la souplesse à la vigueur; les lutteurs en déployant leurs formes athlétiques excitent le plus vif intérêt et captivent toute l'attention des nombreux spectateurs qui se pressent autour d'eux. Dès la plus haute antiquité la lutte a tenu un rang distingué dans les jeux publics. On luttait devant les tombeaux des guerriers, dans le cirque et dans les camps. Le laurier ceignait la tête des vainqueurs, et les poètes chantaient leur triomphe. La lutte rappelle les temps où l'homme disputait péniblement la terre aux bètes féroces qui en étaient en possession. La société naissante sentit vivement la nécessité de cet art qui était alors toute la science stratégique. La Grèce institua ces jeux publics et solennels où des luttes opiniâtres, "des danses armées, des combats simulés joints à des scènes dramatiques, représentaient les grandes actions, les personnages héroïques, et développaient à la fois les forces et le génie de la nation.

Wrestling. This is one of the gymnastic exercises that most attracts the crowds of onlookers. Skill is combined with strength, flexibility with vigor; the wrestlers, by displaying their athletic forms, arouse the keenest interest and captivate the entire attention of the numerous spectators who crowd around them. From the most remote antiquity, wrestling has held a distinguished rank in public games. People fought before the tombs of warriors, in the circus and in camps. The laurel wreath encircled the heads of the victors, and poets sang of their triumph. Wrestling recalls the times when man painfully disputed the earth with the wild beasts that were in possession of it. The nascent society keenly felt the necessity of this art which was then the entire strategic science. Greece instituted these public and solemn games where stubborn struggles, armed dances, simulated combats combined with dramatic scenes, represented great actions, heroic characters, and developed both the strength and the genius of the nation.

A Rome, où la tactique militaire consistait à diriger les masses et à rendre les individus passifs par la rigueur de la discipline, ces jeux n'eurent plus la même utilité, et les divertissemens populaires prirent une nouvelle direction. Les Romains demandaient du pain et des gladiateurs. Cette passion était si vive chez eux que les ambitieux étaient certains de tout obtenir du peuple en lui donnant le spectacle des com-hats. Et comme pour fournir à la dépense ils n'avaient d'autre moyen que de pressurer les provinces, on pourrait dire que Rome semble n'avoir soumis le monde que pour payer ses athlètes.

In Rome, where military tactics consisted of directing the masses and making individuals passive through the rigor of discipline, these games no longer had the same utility, and popular entertainment took a new direction. The Romans demanded bread and gladiators. This passion was so strong among them that the ambitious were certain of obtaining everything from the people by giving them the spectacle of the com-hats. And since to meet the expense they had no other means than to squeeze the provinces, one could say that Rome seems to have subjugated the world only to pay its athletes.

Héritiers des Grecs et des Romains, les Provençaux se sont plus rapprochés des premiers en donnant la préférence aux exercices gymnastiques. Aucune fète publique ou locale qui ne porte ce caractère. A l'ap-proche d'un Roumevage ou à l'annonce d'une Fête, les athlètes se rassemblent pour mesurer leurs forces. Dans un grand espace sablonneux ou sur une vaste pelouse, on trace une enceinte, fermée avec des cordes tendues. Des siéges en gradins sont placés en dehors. Les juges du camp ont une place distinguée. Deux athlètes se présentent nus avec un seul caleçon. Ils s'approchent, se touchent dans la main, c'em-brassent, et promettent devant les juges de lutter loyalement et sans colère. Alors, se mesurant de l'œil, ils tournent à l'entour l'un de l'autre avant de hasarder une attaque imprudente.

Heirs of the Greeks and the Romans, the Provençals have drawn closer to the former by giving preference to gymnastic exercises. No public or local festival bears this character. As a Roumevage approaches or at the announcement of a Festival, the athletes gather to measure their strength. In a large sandy space or on a vast lawn, an enclosure is marked out, closed with stretched ropes. Tiered seats are placed outside. The camp judges have a distinguished place. Two athletes present themselves naked, wearing only underpants. They approach, touch hands, embrace, and promise before the judges to fight fairly and without anger. Then, sizing each other up, they circle each other before risking a reckless attack.
Enfin, ils se heurtent et se serrent; leurs bras s'entrelacent, leurs jambes, leurs genoux buttent les uns contre les autres; il paraissent immobiles on les prendrait pour deux statues groupées, si la tension des muscles, le gon-lement des veines et la sueur qui ruisselle de leurs fronts, n'indiquaient la grandeur des efforts et la concentration des forces. Soudain le plus robuste soulève son adversaire et cherche à le renverser; mais celui-ci, plus souple, se fait un point d'appui du corps auquel il est cramponné. L'un ne peut tomber sans l'autre. Sur la terre le plus agile aurait plus d'avantage. Le premier se décide donc à lancer au loin son adversaire. Les spectateurs applaudissent, et les lutteurs boivent un verre de vin pour réparer leurs forces.

Finally, they collide and squeeze; their arms intertwine, their legs, their knees butt against each other; they appear motionless; one would take them for two grouped statues, if the tension of the muscles, the swelling of the veins and the sweat which trickles from their foreheads, did not indicate the magnitude of the efforts and the concentration of the forces. Suddenly the more robust one lifts his adversary and tries to knock him down; but the latter, more supple, makes a point of support of the body to which he clings. One cannot fall without the other. On the ground the more agile would have more advantage. The first therefore decides to throw his adversary far away. The spectators applaud, and the wrestlers drink a glass of wine to restore their strength.
Nous avons vu à Marseille les deux grands lutteurs de la Provence, Peyroou de Meyrargues, et Garrinet de Pertuis. Depuis longues années ils étaient vainqueurs à toutes les fêtes. Chacun d'eux avait sa maison tapissée de plats d'étain, et ses armoires remplies d'écharpes. Mais tant de couronnes gagnées avee trop de facilité n'avaient plus de prix à leurs yeux. Ils brûlaient de se rencontrer et de combattre devant un peuple nombreux. Marseille fut le lieu qu'ils choisirent. Peyroou, vrai colosse, se fiait à sa masse inébranlable. et son corps roide et sans souplesse semblait un tronc vigoureux enraciné profondément dans la terre. Garrinet, vif, agile, souple, voltigeait autour de cette masse et s'y enlaçait pour tächer de l'ébranler. Le lattenr de Meyrargues roidissait ses bras comme deux massues et les laissait tomber sur son adversaire, qui aurait été écrasé s'il n'avait eu l'adresse de les éviter. Lassé de tant d'efforts inutiles, il le serre et l'étreint dans ses bras, il l'élève dans les airs et semble devoir l'étendre sans vie à ses pieds; mais ce nouveau Protée courbe son corps et enlace ses membres autour des bras qui le retiennent. Plus embarrassé qu'auparavant et ne sachant que faire de ce rival incommode, il dépense pour s'en délivrer plus de forces qu'il n'en a mis à s'en rendre maître. Enfin, cette terrible lutte dura trois heures, et les lutteurs se quittérent per-suadés de l'inutilité de la prolonger plus long-temps.

In Marseilles we saw the two great wrestlers of Provence, Peyroou of Meyrargues and Garrinet of Pertuis. For many years they had been victorious at every festival. Each of them had his house lined with pewter dishes and his cupboards filled with sashes. But so many crowns won with too much ease were no longer of value in their eyes. They burned to meet and fight before a large crowd. Marseilles was the place they chose. Peyroou, a true colossus, relied on his unshakeable mass, and his stiff and inflexible body seemed like a vigorous trunk rooted deep in the earth. Garrinet, lively, agile, supple, fluttered around this mass and embraced it to try to shake it. The lattenr of Meyrargues stiffened his arms like two clubs and let them fall on his adversary, who would have been crushed if he had not had the skill to avoid them. Tired of so much useless effort, he squeezes and embraces him in his arms, lifts him into the air and seems to be about to stretch him out lifeless at his feet; but this new Proteus bends his body and twists his limbs around the arms that hold him. More embarrassed than before and not knowing what to do with this troublesome rival, he expends more strength to free himself than he had put into mastering him. Finally, this terrible struggle lasted three hours, and the wrestlers left, convinced of the futility of prolonging it any longer.

Dans la manière de lutter des Provençaux, il faut, pour vaincre, renverser son adversaire sur le dos et l'y tenir quelques instans en posant un genou sur sa poitrine. Toute autre manière de se culbuter est nulle. Les juges du camp décident souverainement, tous les cas. Cette lutte s'appelle loucho en provençal. Elle est principalement usitée sur les deux rives de la Durance. Les communes de Peyrolles, de Meyrargues et du Puy-Ste-Réparade passent pour fournir les meilleurs lutteurs du département. Mais ils trouvent des rivaux dignes d'eux de l'autre côté de la Dur

In the Provençal way of wrestling, to win, one must turn one's opponent onto his back and hold him there for a few moments by placing a knee on his chest. Any other way of topping is null. The judges of the camp decide supremely in all cases. This struggle is called loucho in Provençal. It is mainly used on both banks of the Durance. The communes of Peyrolles, Meyrargues, and Puy-Ste-Réparade are said to provide the best wrestlers in the department. But they find worthy rivals on the other side of the Durance.

From the above text it is obvious that the author spoke about the Free Wrestling (Lutte Libre) in which any kind of attack is allowed. Definitely the most interesting detail from this passage is the one where the reader is explained how exactly the immobilization of the opponent on the ground was achieved. The victor has first to turn his opponent onto his back and then to fix him in that helpless, submissive position by pressing his knee against the loser’s chest thus keeping him there immovable for a few moments in sign of his unconditional victory, so that the judges could see it as well; any other kind of victory was not considered valid in this ferocious sport. It is the earliest account on Free Wrestling that I have and which provides a very detailed explanation of the rules of the above style. Another brilliant description of the brutal Free Wrestling exhibition is given in the Ompdrailles le tombeau des lutteurs (1882), by Leon Cladel, on Pages 180-202.

Interesting details on the ancient “Roman” freestyle wrestling as it was practiced by the residents of Provence are revealed on the Page 215 of the 1875 book called Les Saltimbanques, by G. Escudier.

La lutte, chez les Romains , consistait à se renverser par tous les efforts physiques possibles ,mais sans coups portés à l'adversaire . On admirait l'élégance , les mouvements , la précision . La lutte avait toujours lieu sur un sol recouvert de sable , et les combattants eux-mêmes étaient frottés d'une poussière fine , l'haphe . Les luttes duraient quelquefois dix et quinze minutes , sans reprises , sans répit ; il fallait que l'un des deux lutteurs fût renversé , et que son adversaire l'empêchât de faire un mouvement, en lui mettant le le genou sur la poitrine .

Wrestling, among the Romans, consisted of knocking oneself down using every possible physical effort, but without striking the opponent. The elegance, the movements, the precision were admired. Wrestling always took place on a sandy ground, and the combatants themselves were rubbed with a fine dust, haphe. The fights sometimes lasted ten to fifteen minutes, without any resumptions or respite; one of the two wrestlers had to be knocked down, and their opponent had to prevent them from making a move by placing their knee on their chest.

In June 2022 I contacted the Commune of Maillane in department of Bouches-du-Rhone on the subject of the traditional Provencals wrestling and received a reply from Ms Miranda Denicolai of the Musee de Frederic Mistral. She wrote me:

“De fait, à Maillane, se déroulaient chaque année des luttes, comme l'attestent différents écrits : Dans sa lettre-réponse au questionnaire du préfet pour la Statistique des Bouches-du-Rhône, datée du 1er août 1820, le maire de Maillane, Dumas, écrit à propos de la fête de Sainte Agathe :Les divertissements ordinaires de cette fête sont la danse et les farandoles qui durent Bien souvent trois ou quatre jours consécutifs. Il se pratique, parfois, des jeux gymnastiques tels que la lutte, la course des hommes et celle des chevaux, le saut et autres pour tous lesquels on distribue différents prix. Et l'on se borne à faire revivre de temps à autre, les exercices de la lutte, de la course et du saut qui sont devenus, plutôt, l'objet d'une spéculation que d'un simple divertissement de la part des aubergistes qui ont pris la coutume d'en fournir les prix.”
“In fact, wrestling took place in Maillane every year, as various writings attest: In his reply to the prefect's questionnaire for the Statistics of Bouches-du-Rhône, dated August 1, 1820, the mayor of Maillane, Dumas, wrote about the Feast of Saint Agatha: The usual entertainments of this festival are dancing and farandoles, which often last three or four consecutive days. Sometimes gymnastic games are practiced, such as wrestling, races for men and horses, jumping, and others, for all of which various prizes are awarded. And the exercises of wrestling, running, and jumping are only revived from time to time, and have become the subject of speculation rather than simple entertainment for the innkeepers, who have taken to providing the prizes.”

“Les luttes sont encore présentes dans le calendrier des fêtes paru dans les premiers numéros de l'Armana prouvençau, dans les années 1855-1860 ; ainsi, au mois de février, à la mention des fêtes de Sainte-Agathe à Maillane, dans la colonne Fiero, voto, roumavage, on peut lire : Lucho, courso d'ome, de miech-ome e de vièi, saut sus louire, courre dins lou sa, estranglo-cat.”
Wrestling matches are still mentioned in the calendar of festivals published in the first issues of the Armana Provençau, in the years 1855-1860; thus, in the month of February, at the mention of the festivals of Sainte-Agathe in Maillane, in the column Fiero, voto, roumavage, we can read: Lucho, courso d'ome, de miech-ome e de vièi, saut sus louire, courre dins lou sa, estranglo-cat.”

After thoroughly studying all of the above materials it soon became clear to me that some very important pieces of the puzzle were still missing from my sight. First of all it was related to the original rules of free style wrestling as it was historically practiced in Provence, France before the introduction of the two shoulders back fall rule. That didn’t stop me and I of course continued my research. And very recently I was lucky to find a very detailed historical document that finally shed light on the true origins of the modern Greco-Roman wrestling and I am attaching it below.

Les vieilleries lyonnaises. Lyon. 1879.
By "Nizier du Puitspelu", real name Clair Tisseur (1827-1896).
Les Luttes. (P.13-15).

M. Rossignol peut se dire avec un noble orgueil qu'entre ses mains les arènes n'ont point dégénéré. Mais le système s'est modifié. D'abord le directeur actuel a substitué une troupe ambulante aux lutteurs sédentaires, presque tous lyonnais, qui luttaient un peu pour de fort maigres bénéfices et beaucoup pour l'amour de l'art. Puis, les conditions de la lutte elle-même ont changé, ou plutôt ce sont, les usages de la lutte provençale qui sont maintenant adoptés.

Il est en effet remarquable que Lyon et la Provence aient pendant longtemps gardé chacune sépa-rément les traditions des deux genres de luttes que connaissait l'antiquité. L'ancienne lutte lyonnaise était celle qui portait chez les Grecs le nom de lutte debout, πάλη ὀρθό et qui avait été chez eux le plus tôt en usage. Le combat n'y continuait qu'autant que les adversaires réussissaient à se tenir sur pied, comme on le voit dans un bas-relief du Vatican. Si un lutteur était renversé, son antagoniste lui per-mettait de se relever et de recommencer la lutte jusqu'à ce que l'un des deux fût tombé trois fois; alors le combat était terminé. Chez les vieux Lyon-nais, il en était à peu près de même; seulement il fallait que le lutteur, en renversant son adversaire, lui fit des deux épaules toucher la poussière. C'est ce qui déterminait la victoire.

Mr. Rossignol can say with noble pride that in his hands the arenas have not degenerated. But the system has changed. First, the current director substituted a traveling troupe for the sedentary wrestlers, almost all from Lyon, who wrestled a little for very meager profits and a lot for the love of the art. Then, the conditions of the wrestling itself have changed, or rather, the customs of Provençal wrestling are now adopted.

It is indeed remarkable that Lyon and Provence have each, for a long time, separately preserved the traditions of the two genres of wrestling known from antiquity. The ancient Lyonnaise wrestling was that which among the Greeks bore the name of standing wrestling, πάλη ὀρθό, and which had been in use among them the earliest. The fight continued only as long as the opponents managed to stay on their feet, as can be seen in a bas-relief in the Vatican. If a wrestler was knocked down, his opponent allowed him to get up and start the fight again until one of the two had fallen three times; then the fight was over. Among the old Lyonnais, it was almost the same; only the wrestler, in knocking down his opponent, had to make both his shoulders touch the dust. This is what determined the victory.

Telle est bien la vieille lutte debout, dont parle Homère dans sa description des funérailles de Pa-trocle. Il nous peint, en effet, Ajax tombant à la renverse, Ulysse sur sa poitrine, situation qui dé-terminerait dans nos conditions modernes la défaite d'Ajax, puisque ses épaules devaient infailliblement presser la terre. Homère, au contraire, montre les héros se relevant pour recommencer le combat.

En Provence, au rebours, on avait gardé la tradi-tion de la lutte qui portait chez les Grecs le nom de lulle à terre, ἀλίνδησις. Elle ne se terminait que lorsqu'un des lutteurs, ne pouvant parvenir à se re-lever, était obligé de s'avouer vaincu. C'est celle qui est représentée dans le groupe sculpté des Lutteurs, dans le manuscrit de Virgile, au Vatican, et dans un joli camée antique, où l'on voit deux enfants nus s'exerçant à lutter sous la direction de leur pé-dagogue, qui les dirige une verge à la main. L'un d'eux a la tête prise sous le bras de son adversaire, qui s'apprête sans doute à porter le «coup de tête. Tel est aussi le genre de lutte qui a prévalu partout, à Lyon comme en Provence. Reste cette seule diffé-rence, que pour terminer le combat, il suffit aujour-d'hui, comme dans l'ancienne tradition lyonnaise, que les épaules du vaincu aient touché le sol simul-tanément. Les coups roulés ne valent rien.

This is indeed the old standing wrestling that Homer speaks of in his description of Patroclus's funeral. He depicts Ajax falling backward, with Odysseus on his chest, a situation that would determine Ajax's defeat in our modern world, since his shoulders would inevitably be pressed against the ground. Homer, on the contrary, shows the heroes rising to resume the fight.
In Provence, conversely, the tradition of wrestling, which among the Greeks was called lulle à terre (the ground wrestling), ἀλίνδησις, had been preserved. It only ended when one of the wrestlers, unable to get up, was forced to admit defeat. This is the one represented in the sculpted group of the Wrestlers, in the Virgil manuscript, in the Vatican, and in a beautiful antique cameo, where we see two naked children practicing wrestling under the direction of their teacher, who directs them with a rod in his hand. One of them has his head caught under the arm of his opponent, who is undoubtedly preparing to deliver the "headbutt." This is also the type of wrestling that prevailed everywhere, in Lyon as in Provence. The only difference remains: to end the fight, it is enough today, as in the old Lyonnaise tradition, that the shoulders of the vanquished touch the ground simultaneously. Rolled blows are worthless.

Based on all of the above I would like to summarize my studies of the wrestling styles which fathered the modern Olympic sport of Greco-Roman wrestling in this short paragraph.
It appears that originally there were two distinct wrestling cultures that contributed to the formation of the new French style of wrestling, namely: 1) the Provencal and 2) the Lyonnaise wrestling traditions.

The original Provencal wrestling was in fact a freestyle wrestling (aka Lutte Libre or Free Wrestling) in which the victory was achieved only by immobilizing your opponent on the ground so that he being unable to extricate himself from certain hold would finally give up any resistance and admit his defeat verbally.

The two shoulders back fall was not originally part of the Provencal wrestling tradition and instead was essential for achieving victory in the Lyonnaise style of wrestling (aka Lutte D’Hommes or Men’s wrestling). The latter was a standing wrestling style in which only holds above the waist were allowed, and in which the use of legs and feet for throwing (croc-en-jambe) was strictly prohibited. In Lyonnaise wrestling three incomplete falls (takedowns) were equal to a two shoulder fall and terminated the contest.

I find it very likely that the Lyonnaise style of wrestling was known outside its native areas. The support of this we find in a great account on Medieval wrestling traditons which is given in “The Travels of Leo of Rozmital, 1465-1467”, a XV century document first published in Stuttgart in 1844. The wrestling account appears in the Latin text of that document on Pages 25-26.

From that historical reference we learn that the prize-wrestling contests were a common entertainment at the court of Philip III The Good (1396-1467) Duke of Burgundy in Brussels, Flanders (present-day Belgium). Not to shock the ladies who were also present at those matches the men weren’t allowed to wrestle naked and had to compete clothed in tunics. The conditions of their wrestling were that "all wrestling has to be conducted solely above the waist and to win the bout it was required to floor your opponent three times". Below I am giving an English translation of the full text of the wrestling account from that historical document. This English translation was made from German and Latin and edited by Malcolm Letts, and was issued by the Hakluyt Society of London for the year 1955 under the name of The Travels of Leo of Rozmital (Second Series No 108).

"The next day the young Duke ordered a tourney to be proclaimed and that those who wished to take part should assemble in the place appointed for it. When all were assembled we observed their manner of tilting that is they tilt with spurs to their horses, a barrier intervening, using very slender lances. Whoso breaks the greatest number of lances has the glory of victory. Immediately before they leave the lists the broken lances are counted, and he who has broken the greatest number is conducted to his lodgings by a great concourse, crying his name again and again and proclaiming his victory. These things having been concluded, at the third hour of the night, the Duke sent to John Zehrowsky and invited him to come with certain of the senior members of his company who wished to wrestle, saying that he would provide each with an opponent. Thereupon lord John presented himself at the castle with those whom he had chosen. He entered the hall where the Duke was with three Duchesses, those of Burgundy, Cleves and Guelders and other ladies and noble maidens. Then certain of the Duke's attendants approached John Zehrowsky and informed him that he should prepare himself, as his opponents would shortly appear.

Then lord John enquired how the wrestling was to proceed, whether the wrestlers were to appear naked or in tunics. 'In tunics,' was the answer, 'for such is our custom, but it is prohibited by law to seize an opponent below the belt and to trip him up by the feet. Otherwise it is permitted to throw an opponent to the ground in whatever manner one wished. For it is the custom', they said, 'in our country to wear underclothes, that is tunic and hose, and it is no shame to wrestle thus clad, even though multitudes of matrons and maidens be present.'

The bout having started, the wrestler could do nothing against his opponent, the lord John, who threw him three times to the ground, at which the spectators were amazed. For it was said that his match was not to be found in all the dominions of the Duke of Burgundy, that he had not previously been beaten by any man at wrestling, and that for this reason he had received 500 gold pieces a year more than his usual wages.

But perhaps he would now lose this reward, as he had been thrice overthrown.
After the wrestling match the Duke called lord John to him dressed only in his tunic, as he had wrestled, and feeling all his limbs, feet and hands, examined his whole body and was amazed that his wrestler had been vanquished. Then the Duke asked lord John whether he had a worthy adversary against whom he could match a noble Count of his. Lord John had a man present called Kevard who wrestled with the Count and threw him to the ground three times. Then Schaseck approached the Duke and said: 'I beg, most illustrious prince, that your highness may appoint an adversary who may be thought to be my equal.' Having heard this, the Duke ordered one to be summoned for him to wrestle with. As we wrestled I threw him at once to the ground. But when by the Duke's orders I renewed the contest, I was thrown down with such force that I thought the devil was behind it.When the wrestling match was over the Duke ordered wine and sweetmeats to be served, of which so much was spread about that one might think it could scarcely be bought with several gold pieces. But the Duchesses served me so abundantly that I could scarcely reach my inn. I was drunk. The day following this wrestling my lord jousted with John."

Based on the above said it is obvious that in historical Low Countries Lyonnaise wrestling was known and it appears that it was locally referred to as Lyfvat (Lijf-vatten, Lutte de la ceinture, or the torso-holds, holds around the waist). The definition of the wrestling game (Worstelen) as it is shown in the old Dutch speaking sources is also that of Lyf-vat:

“WORSTELEN, stryden, malkander om't lyf vatten om zyn tegen party, neer te gooyen . Lutter, se prendre corps à corps pour jetter son adversaire par terre. v.n. (Nieuw Nederd en Frans woordenboek, Vol. 1, Page 1308. 1701, by Pieter Marin).”

“Wrestling, struggle, is grabbing each other around the torso and throwing them down”.

Interestingly, in the 19c Lyfvat wrestling was revived by the German Gymnastic Society (GGS) and became an official wrestling style for both, the amateur and professional athletes, the members of Turvereins (Turner gyms) in Germany, Netherlands, and Belgium, and even in the United States. Their, the GGS, a safer version of Lyfvat, allowed only holds from the person’s hips to their shoulders (including of course the holds by the arms), and avoiding all kinds of neck-holds, which historically, as we know, were allowed; tripping just like it was in the olden days was also strictly prohibited. In amateur contests it was enough to throw your opponent on his back (either lying or sitting positions “back falls” counted) and in professional matches it was required to throw adversary from standing position right onto both his shoulders according to the old Lyonnaise tradition.

Notably, a wrestling style called Lyfvat Neergooien survived in South Africa and was practiced by the Boer population (the Afrikaners, the descendents of early Dutch settlers in SA) until the beginning of the 20c.
There are some credible evidences which clearly show that there’s a possibility of Lyonnaise wrestling being known and practiced in the Appenines too; thus Paris de Grassis (1470-1528), who was the master of ceremonies under the Popes, Julius II and Leo X, in his Diaries mentioned a certain wrestling style in which only wrestling with arms was allowed, and using of feet and legs for throwing was expressly prohibited. This wrestling style was locally known as the LUCTA BRACHIALIS, literally “wrestling with arms”:

"Quo facto Papa pedes ivit ad do mum Sebastiani de Saulis Dovanerii Patrimonii, et ibi cum omnibus cardi nalibus pransus est honorifice. Eadem die facta sunt quaedam spectacula, venationes taurorum, et ludi, et choreae, et lucta brachialis. Die lunaoctobris ex Tuscanella ad Cornetum cucurrit."

"When this was done, the Pope went on foot to the house of Sebastiano de Saulis Dovanerii Patrimonio, and there he dined honorably with all the cardinals. On the same day there were certain spectacles, bull-hunting, and games, and dances, and wrestling with arms. On the 1st of October he ran from Tuscanella to Cornetum." (By Paris de Grassis).

The invention of the new French wrestling style which very likely occurred in the late 1820s-early 1830s didn’t stop the old-school wrestlers from practicing their favorite sport the Lyonnaise wrestling. A reference called “La Lutte et les Lutteurs” (September 2nd, 1867), by Jules Claretie which appeared in his “Poudre au vent” clearly shows that Charles Arpin didn’t want to accept the new rules which allowed attacking a fallen wrestler and favored the old traditional Lyonnaise style style of wrestling.

“La lutte perpendiculaire est encore aujourd'hui comme le jeu classique des lutteurs. J'ai vu Arpin, en ces derniers temps, venir se mesurer avec les lutteurs nouveaux, et se présenter droit devant son adversaire, qu'il s'efforçait de terrasser en le cein-turant et d'un coup franc. C'est l'ancienne méthode, parait-il, et c'est la bonne; il y a là, ce me semble, quelque chose de plus fier. Lorsque Arpin touchait terre, lorsqu'on le traînait sur le tapis, le renversant à demi, le soulevant, le retournant, jusqu'à ce que, selon les règles, les deux épaules rouchassent l'arène, il se relevait à la fois mélancolique et furieux, mau-dissant cette lutte à terre qu'il ne connaît pas et qu'il n'a jamais pratiquée.”

“Perpendicular wrestling is still today like the classic game of wrestlers. I saw Arpin, in recent times, come to measure himself with the new wrestlers, and present himself straight in front of his adversary, whom he tried to knock down by encircling him and with a clean blow. It is the old method, it seems, and it is the right one; there is in it, it seems to me, something more proud. When Arpin touched the ground, when he was dragged on the mat, half knocked over, lifted up, turned over, until, according to the rules, both shoulders roared the arena, he got up at once melancholy and furious, cursing this ground wrestling which he does not know and which he has never practiced.”
Interestingly, in the 1830s and 1840s both Provencal and Lyonnaise wrestling traditions successfully co-existed with a new French Greco-Roman wrestling, which inherited the very best from both these two different wrestling cultures, since it featured the Lyonnaise definition of back fall, as well as their wrestling only above the waist, and also allowed the ground wrestling as it was common in the old Provencal style.

Back then the French Wrestling with Flat Hands (lutte a mains plates, a proper name of the French Greco-Roman style), Provencal Free Wrestling (lute libre), and Lyonnaise Men’s Wrestling (lutte d’hommes) prize wrestling contests were part of the wrestling program offered by the best professionals from Midi and Lyon all around the Continental Europe as well as in America. Phil Lions, the foremost pro wrestling historian, whose in depth research covers the Golden Century of French pro wrestling stage (from the 1850s to the 1980s), kindly shared with me his earliest find; it was the 1845 advert of Lutte D’Hommes (Men’s Wrestling) prize-wrestling exhibition of Mr Hugues Meunier in Saint-Etienne, France.

I have previously mentioned Jean Dupuis, he truly was an iconic pro wrestling character, the true pioneer of the sport, I used a depiction of two wrestlers from his personal seal as the cover image for this article. Dupuis popularized French wrestling all around the Continental Europe, it was him who first brought French professional wrestling to Germany in the 1830s, and he successfully continued running his Men’s Wrestling matches in Munich, Germany in 1841. These are the rules he used in his wrestling matches:

1) To win the prize, the wrestler must be thrown onto his back. The wrestler whose shoulders have not touched the ground is not defeated; he can stand up again and begin the fight again. 2) The wrestler who has been thrown onto both shoulders must leave the fighting area. His opponent is not obliged to continue the fight with him; however, he is free to enter the ring against him at the next bout. 3) Only touching the upper body from the belt is permitted. Crossing the legs is expressly forbidden, as is the slightest blow from one wrestler to the other. 4) Wrestlers who have not defeated each other after a quarter of an hour must leave the fighting area.

Although it becomes obvious that in the 1850s the old wrestling styles slowly but surely ceased to be practiced by the French prize-wrestlers and the only professional wrestling they offered to their fans in France and all around the world was that of the new unified French Greco-Roman wrestling. Although it would be fair to say that the old style didn’t completely disappear from the wrestling map. We know for a fact that both old Provencal and Lyonnaise styles were still practiced by the locals in Maillane (Bouches-du-Rhone) in the 1850s-early 1860s. And notably, the Lyonnaise Men’s Wrestling was still exhibited in Germany, by the local prize-wrestlers even in the 1860s, where it was first brought by the French professionals in the 1830s.

Circus Carre, Frankfurt, 1864.
Rules and Conditions of Wrestling. 1) The wrestlers shake hands as friends, then stand two steps apart and begin the attack. 2) Contact is only made from the hips to the head, with flat hands, but not in the opponent's face. 3) Any rough contact is against wrestling rules. 4) Any foot-tripping, especially that which touches the opponent's ankle, is strictly prohibited. 5) A wrestler who touches the ground with both shoulders is considered defeated. However, if a wrestler falls on his hands, knees, or any other part of his body, he is not considered defeated. The wrestling must stop immediately. The opponent must also be given time to stand up, and two steps must be taken away again. Then the wrestling match begins again. 6) If the wrestling match remains undecided after 10 minutes of wrestling, further wrestling stops and resumes in the next prize-wrestling performance.

1 2   Wrestling in Galtier Book

1 3   france lutte 1835 lyon

2 france lutte greco roman rules

3 france lutte dhommes rules

4   Lutte DHommes Phil Lions

5 Milano Wrestling 1844

6 Jean Dupuis Munich 1841

7 Lutte 1

8 Frankfurt 1864 

 

Julius  1

Wrestlers 1800s

Lyfvat Netherlands

Medieval Lyfvat

Lutte DHommes Afiche Sample

 

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